MONGOLIA

Land of Genghis Khan, Rugged Terrain and Tibetan Buddhism

By Liz Goldner

Soil collection site in Mongolia

The volatile and dramatic history of Mongolia includes tales of nomads, herders and plunderers. Undoubtedly, the country’s rugged and often barren terrain helped influence the behavior of its tribesmen. Slightly larger than Alaska, Mongolia lies in central Asia between Siberia on the north and China on the south. Elevation ranges from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, while numerous rivers, with exotic names as the Hovd, Onon, Selenga and Tula flow throughout the country. Much of the Gobi Desert falls within Mongolia.

Mongolian nomadic tribes began plundering China long before the time of Christ. In fact, the Great Wall of China was constructed around 200 B.C. to protect the country from the Mongols.

The early Mongols, illiterate, religiously shamanistic and sparsely populated, were herdsmen on the grassy plains north of the Gobi Desert and south of Siberian forests. Before 1200, the Mongols moved around in small bands headed by a chief, or khan, and lived in portable felt dwellings. They endured frequent deprivations and had sparse areas for grazing animals.

Genghis Khan

From his late teens to age 38, in 1200, Temujin rose as the khan or ruler over various families. In 1206, Temujin took the title Universal Ruler, which translates to Genghis Khan. During his lifetime, he conquered more territory than any other conqueror, and his successors established the largest contiguous empire in history. Without Genghis Khan there would not be a Mongolia.

Khan's subjects considered themselves at the center of the universe and favored by the gods. They claimed that Khan was the rightful master over the entire world.

Genghis Khan improved his military organization and broke up what was left of old enemy tribes. He made it law that there was to be no kidnapping of women, declared all children legitimate. Khan made it a capital offense to steal animals, regulated hunting, improving the availability of meat for everyone, introduced record keeping and created official seals and a supreme officer of the law.

Genghis Khan and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies to central Europe and Southeast Asia. His grandson Kublai Khan conquered China, established the Yuan dynasty (1279-1368 AD), then gained fame in Europe through the writings of Marco Polo. But the Mongol’s strength declined rapidly after their dynasty in China was overthrown in 1368.

The Manchus, a tribal group that conquered China in 1644 and formed the Qing dynasty, brought Mongolia under Manchu control in 1691 as Outer Mongolia. In 1727, Russia and Manchu China concluded the Treaty of Khiakta, defining the border between China and Mongolia that exists in large part today.

Outer Mongolia was a Chinese province (1691-1911), an autonomous state under Russian protection (1912-19), and again a Chinese province (1919-21). The Russian revolution and civil war afforded Chinese warlords an opportunity to re-establish their rule in Outer Mongolia. Following Soviet military occupation of the Mongolian capital of Urga in July 1921, Moscow again became the major outside influence on Mongolia. The Mongolian People's Republic was proclaimed on November 25, 1924.

Between 1925 and 1928, the Mongolian Peoples Revolutionary Party (MPRP) consolidated power under the communist regime. During this period, the society was basically nomadic and illiterate, there was no industrial proletariat, the aristocracy and religious establishment shared the country's wealth, and the government had little organization or experience.

Following the World War II, the Mongolian Government shifted to postwar development, focusing on civilian enterprise. In the early 1960s, Mongolia attempted to maintain a neutral position amidst increasingly contentious Sino-Soviet polemics. Mongolia and the Soviet Union signed an agreement in 1966 that introduced large-scale Soviet ground forces as part of Moscow's general buildup along the Sino-Soviet frontier.

During the period of Sino-Soviet tensions, relations between Mongolia and China deteriorated. In 1983, Mongolia began expelling the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China.

People

Life in sparsely populated Mongolia has recently become more urbanized. Nearly half of the people live in the capital, Ulaanbaatar, and in other provincial centers. Soil for Common Ground 191 was collected in a slightly mountainous and forested area just north of the capital Ulaanbaatar, according to Cory Johnston, an official representative from that country. Semi-nomadic life still predominates in the countryside of Mongolia, but settled agricultural communities are becoming more common.

Ethnic Mongols account for about 85% of Mongolia's population and consist of Khalkha and other groups, all distinguished primarily by dialects of the Mongol language. Mongol is an Altaic language--from the Altaic Mountains of Central Asia. In Mongolian, the phrase for “peace” is “enkh taivan,” written in Cyrillic.

Traditionally, Tibetan Buddhist Lamaism was the predominant religion. However, it was
suppressed under the communist regime until 1990. As liberalization began, Buddhism has enjoyed a resurgence. About four million ethnic Mongols live outside Mongolia; about 3.4 million live in China, and 500,000 live in Russia.

Government and Politics

Until 1990, the Mongolian Government was modeled on the Soviet system; only the communist party--the MPRP--officially was permitted to function. The birth of perestroika in the former Soviet Union and the democracy movement in Eastern Europe were mirrored in Mongolia. In early 1990 when the first organized opposition group, the Mongolian Democratic Union, appeared. In May, the constitution was amended, deleting reference to the MPRP's role as the guiding force in the country, legalizing opposition parties, creating a standing legislative body, and establishing the office of president.

The country’s new constitution restructured the legislative branch of government, creating a unicameral legislature, the State Great Hural (SGH). The 1992 constitution provided that the president would be elected by popular vote rather than by the legislature

As the supreme government organ, the SGH is empowered to enact and amend laws, determine domestic and foreign policy, ratify international agreements, and declare a state of emergency. The constitution empowers the president to propose a prime minister, call for the government's dissolution in consultation with the SGH chairman, initiate legislation, veto all or parts of legislation (the SGH can override the veto with a two-thirds majority), and issue decrees, which become effective with the prime minister's signature.

Economy

Economic activity in Mongolia has traditionally been based on herding and agriculture. Mongolia has extensive mineral deposits; copper, coal, molybdenum, tin, tungsten, and gold account for a large part of industrial production. Other than agriculture (20.2% of GDP), dominant industries in the composition of GDP are mining 20.4%, trade and service 24.8% and transportation, storage, and communication 12.2%.

Because of Mongolia's remoteness and natural beauty, the tourism sector has recently shown signs of rapid growth. With spiking international commodity prices, there has been a surge of international interest in investing in Mongolia’s minerals sector despite the absence of a policy environment firmly conducive to private investment.

Environment

As a result of rapid urbanization and industrial growth policies under the communist regime, Mongolia's deteriorating environment has become a major concern. The burning of soft coal by individual home or “ger” (yurt in Russian) owners, power plants, and factories in Ulaanbaatar has resulted in severely polluted air. Deforestation, overgrazed pastures, and efforts to increase grain and hay production by plowing up more virgin land have increased soil erosion from wind and rain. With the rapid growth of newly privatized herds, overgrazing in selected areas also is a concern. Recent rapid and relatively unregulated growth in the mining sector for minerals (gold, coal, etc.) has become the focus of public debate. The real environmental concern is the sharp boom in the number of informal gold miners, who frequently illegally use mercury, which may lead to an epidemic of mercury poisoning.

Foreign Relations

Mongolia is landlocked between Russia and China, and seeks cordial relations with both nations. At the same time, Mongolia has sought to advance its regional and global relations. Ties with Japan and South Korea are particularly strong. Japan is the largest bilateral aid donor to Mongolia, a position it has held since 1991. Mongolia has also made efforts to steadily boost ties with European countries.

Mongolia became a full participant in the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) in July 1998 and a full member of the Pacific Economic Cooperation Council in April 2000. Mongolia is currently seeking to join the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation forum (APEC) and is an observer in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

Mongolian relations with China began to improve in the mid-1980s when consular agreements were reached and cross-border trade contacts expanded. In May 1990, a Mongolian head of state visited China for the first time in 28 years. The cornerstone of the Mongolian-Chinese relationship is a 1994 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, which codifies mutual respect for the independence and territorial integrity of both sides.

After the disintegration of the former Soviet Union, Mongolia developed relations with the new independent states. Links with Russia and other republics were essential to contribute to stabilization of the Mongolian economy. In 1991, Mongolia and Russia concluded both a Joint Declaration of Cooperation and a bilateral trade agreement. This was followed by a 1993 Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation establishing a new basis of equality in the relationship. Mongolian President Bagabandi visited Moscow in 1999, and Russian President Vladimir Putin visited Mongolia in 2000 in order to sign the 25-point Ulaanbaatar Declaration, reaffirming Mongol-Russian friendship and cooperation on numerous economic and political issues.

U.S.-Mongolian Relations

The U.S. Government recognized Mongolia in January 1987 and established its first embassy in Ulaanbaatar in June 1988. It formally opened in September 1988. Secretary of State James A. Baker, III visited Mongolia in August 1990, and again in July 1991. Mongolia accredited its first ambassador to the United States in March 1989.

The United States has sought to assist Mongolia's movement toward democracy and market-oriented reform and to expand relations with Mongolia primarily in the cultural and economic fields. In 1989 and 1990, a cultural accord, Peace Corps accord, consular convention, and Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) agreement were signed. A trade agreement was signed in January 1991 and a bilateral investment treaty in 1994. Mongolia was granted permanent normal trade relations (NTR) status and generalized system of preferences (GSP) eligibility in June 1999. In July 2004, the U.S. signed a Trade and Investment Framework Agreement with Mongolia to promote economic reform and more foreign investment.

The U.S. Agency for International Development plays a lead role in providing bilateral American assistance to Mongolia. In most years since 1993, the United States Department of Agriculture has provided food aid to Mongolia under the Food for Progress and 416(b) programs. The monetized proceeds of the food aid ($3.7 million in 2005) are currently used to support programs bolstering entrepreneurship, herder diversification, better veterinary services, and disaster relief. The United States has also supported defense reform and an increased capacity by Mongolia's armed forces to participate in international peacekeeping operations.

The Peace Corps currently has over 100 Volunteers in Mongolia. They are engaged primarily in English teaching and teacher training activities. At the request of the Government of Mongolia, the Peace Corps has developed programs in the areas of public health, small business development, and youth development.

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